Health Care Marketing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health Care Marketing - Research Paper Example The researcher states that the idea to provide healthcare insurance was prudent, which was sponsored by employers. The insurance scheme became unaffordable for the elderly who did not have a source of income, the scheme left millions of Americans uncovered. The government has stepped in the healthcare industry and provides medical coverage for all Americans. Recently President Obama signed into law the healthcare bill famously known as Obamacare. The bill revised the way physicians were to be paid. As stated in the law doctors will be paid based on the quality of service offered to the patients rather than the number of times the patient was checked by the doctor. The idea to offer medical cover is indisputable a brilliant one and credit has to be given to those who initiated it. Medical industry cannot operate alone it has to depend on other factors that will enhance its service level. Technology has been integrated with the medical field and hospitals need to be abreast with the de velopment in the technological field. The use of bio-medical equipment such as X-ray machine, CT scan et cetera is common in hospitals. Engineers are busy in workshops trying to come up with devices that are better than those being used. Due to change in lifestyle Americans, massage equipment is  being designed to meet the growing demand for the service. Hospitals have installed this equipment to help their patients in the recovery process. There are mobile applications that help patients track their health status. These apps can perform several functions such as detecting blood pressure. Research on medicines is a continuous process in the medical field; the main objective is to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the present drugs. Patients need their information to be secret (privacy), which is their right.

Art After Philosophy (1969) Joseph Kosuth Essay Example for Free

Art After Philosophy (1969) Joseph Kosuth Essay The fact that it has recently become fashionable for physicists themselves to be sympathetic toward religion . . . marks the physicists’ own lack of confidence in the validity of their hypotheses, which is a reaction on their part from the antireligious dogmatism of nineteenth-century scientists, and a natural outcome of the crisis through which physics has just passed. –A. J. Ayer. . . . once one has understood the Tractatus there will be no temptation to concern oneself anymore with philosophy, which is neither empirical like science nor tautological like mathematics; one will, like Wittgenstein in 1918, abandon philosophy, which, as traditionally understood, is rooted in confusion. –J. O. Urmson. Traditional philosophy, almost by definition, has concerned itself with the unsaid. The nearly exclusive focus on the said by twentieth-century analytical linguistic philosophers is the shared contention that the unsaid is unsaid because it is unsayable. Hegelian philosophy made sense in the nineteenth century and must have been soothing to a century that was barely getting over Hume, the Enlightenment, and Kant.1 Hegel’s philosophy was also capable of giving cover for a defense of religious beliefs, supplying an alternative to Newtonian mechanics, and fitting in with the growth of history as a discipline, as well as accepting Darwinian biology.2 He appeared to give an acceptable resolution to the conflict between theology and science, as well. The result of Hegel’s influence has been that a great majority of contemporary philosophers are really little more than historians of philosophy, Librarians of the Truth, so to speak. One begins to get the impression that there â€Å"is nothing more to be said.† And certainly if one realizes the implications of Wittgenstein’s thinking, and the thinking influenced by him and after him, â€Å"Continental† philosophy need not seriously be considered here.3 Is there a reason for the â€Å"unreality† of philosophy in our time? Perhaps this can be answered by looking into the difference between our time and the centuries preceding us. In the past man’s conclusions about the world were based on the information he had about it – if not specifically like the empiricists, then generally like the rationalists. Often in fact, the closeness between science and philosophy was so great that scientists and philosophers were one and the same person. In fact, from the times of Thales, Epicurus, Heraclitus, and Aristotle to Descartes and Leibnitz, â€Å"the great names in philosophy were often great names in science as well.†4 That the world as perceived by twentieth-century science is a vastly different one than the one of its preceding century, need not be proved here. Is it possible, then, that in effect man has learned so much, and his â€Å"intelligence† is such, that he cannot believe the reasoning of traditional philosophy? That perhaps he knows too much about the world to make those kinds of conclusions? As Sir James Jeans has stated: . . . When philosophy has availed itself of the results of science, it has not been by borrowing the abstract mathematical description of the pattern of events, but by borrowing the then current pictorial description of this pattern; thus it has not appropriated certain knowledge but conjectures. These conjectures were often good enough for the man-sized world, but not, as we now know, for those ultimate processes of nature which control the happenings of the man-sized world, and bring us nearest to the true nature of reality.5 He continues: One consequence of this is that the standard philosophical discussions of many problems, such as those of causality and free will orof materialism or mentalism, are based on an interpretation of the pattern of events which is no longer tenable. The scientific basis of these older discussions has been washed away, and with their disappearance have gone all the arguments . . .6 The twentieth century brought in a time that could be called â€Å"the end of philosophy and the beginning of art.† I do not mean that, of course, strictly speaking, but rather as the â€Å"tendency† of the situation. Certainly linguistic philosophy can be considered the heir to empiricism, but it’s a philosophy in one gear.7 And there is certainly an â€Å"art condition† to art preceding Duchamp, but its other functions or reasons-to-be are so pronounced that its ability to function clearly as art limits its art condition so drastically that it’s only minimally art.8 In no mechanistic sense is there a connection between philosophy’s â€Å"ending† and art’s â€Å"beginning,† but I don’t find this occurrence entirely coincidental. Though the same reasons may be responsible for both occurrences, the connection is made by me. I bring this all up to analyze art’s function and subsequently its viability. And I do so to enable others to understand the reasoning of my – and, by extension, other artists’ – art, as well to provide a clearer understanding of the term â€Å"Conceptual art.†9 THE FUNCTION OF ART The main qualifications to the lesser position of painting is that advances in art are certainly not always formal ones. –Donald Judd (1963). Half or more of the best new work in the last few years has been neither painting nor sculpture. – Donald Judd (1965). Everything sculpture has, my work doesn’t. –Donald Judd (1967). The idea becomes a machine that makes the art. –Sol LeWitt (1965) The one thing to say about art is that it is one thing. Art is art-as-art and everything else is everything else. Art as art is nothing but art. Art is not what is not art. –Ad Reinhardt (1963). The meaning is the use. –Wittgenstein. A more functional approach to the study of concepts has tended to replace the method of introspection. Instead of attempting to grasp or describe concepts bare, so to speak, the psychologist investigates the way in which they function as ingredients in beliefs and in judgments. –Irving M. Copi. Meaning is always a presupposition of function. –T. Segerstedt. . . . the subject matter of conceptual investigations is the meaning of certain words and expressions – and not the things and states of affairs themselves about which we talk, when using those words and expressions. –G. H. Von Wright. Thinking is radically metaphoric. Linkage by analogy is its constituent law or principle, its causal nexus, since meaning only arises through the causal contexts by which a sign stands for (takes the place of) an instance of a sort. To think of anything is to take it as of a sort (as a such and such) and that â€Å"as† brings in (openly or in disguise) the analogy, the parallel, the metaphoric grapple or ground or grasp or draw by which alone the mind takes hold. It takes no hold if there is nothing for it to haul from, for its thinking is the haul, the attraction of likes –I. A. Richards. In this section I will discuss the separation between aesthetics and art; consider briefly formalist art (because it is a leading proponent of the idea of aesthetics as art), and assert that art is analogous to an analytic proposition, and that it is art’s existence as a tautology that enables art to remain â€Å"aloof† from philosophical presumptions. It is necessary to separate aesthetics from art because aesthetics deals with opinions on perception of the world in general. In the past one of the two prongs of art’s function was its value as decoration. So any branch of philosophy that dealt with â€Å"beauty† and thus, taste, was inevitably duty bound to discuss art as well. Out of this â€Å"habit† grew the notion that there was a conceptual connection between art and aesthetics, which is not true. This idea never drastically conflicted with artistic considerations before recent times, not only because the morphological characteristics of art perpetuated the continuity of this error, but as well, because the apparent other â€Å"functions† of art (depiction of religious themes, portraiture of aristocrats, detailing of architecture, etc.) used art to cover up art. When objects are presented within the context of art (and until recently objects always have been used) they are as eligible for aesthetic consideration as are any objects in the world, and an aesthetic consideration of an object existing in the realm of art means that the object’s existence or functioning in an art context is irrelevant to the aesthetic judgment. The relation of aesthetics to art is not unlike that of aesthetics to architecture, in that architecture has a very specific function and how â€Å"good† its design is is primarily related to how well it performs its function. Thus, judgments on what it looks like correspond to taste, and we can see that throughout history different examples of architecture are praised at different times depending on the aesthetics of particular epochs. Aesthetic thinking has even gone so far as to make examples of architecture not related to â€Å"art† at all, works of art in themselves (e.g., the pyramids of Egypt). Aesthetic considerations are indeed always extraneous to an object’s function or â€Å"reason-tobe.† Unless of course, that object’s reason-to-be is strictly aesthetic. An example of a purely aesthetic object is a decorative object, for decoration’s primary function is â€Å"to add something to, so as to make more attractive; adorn; ornament,†10 and this relates directly to taste. And this leads us directly to â€Å"formalist† art and criticism.11 Formalist art (painting and sculpture) is the vanguard of decoration, and, strictly speaking, one could reasonably assert that its art condition is so minimal that for all functional purposes it is not art at all, but pure exercises in aesthetics. Above all things Clement Greenberg is the critic of taste. Behind every one of his decisions is an aesthetic judgment, with those judgments reflecting his taste. And what does his taste reflect? The period he grew up in as a critic, the period â€Å"real† for him: the fifties.12 How else can one account for, given his theories – if they have any logic to them at all – his disinterest in Frank Stella, Ad Reinhardt, and others applicable to his historical scheme? Is it because he is â€Å". . . basically unsympathetic on personally experiential grounds†?13 Or, in other words, â€Å"their work doesn’t suit his taste?† But in the philosophic tabula rasa of art, â€Å"if someone calls it art,† as Don Judd has said, â€Å"it’s art.† Given this, formalist painting and sculpture can be granted an â€Å"art condition,† but only by virtue of their presentation in terms of their art idea (e.g., a rectangular-shaped canvas stretched over wooden supports and stained with such and such colors, using such and such forms, giving such and such a visual experience, etc.). If one looks at contemporary art in this light one realizes the minimal creative effort taken on the part of formalist artists specifically, an d all painters and sculptors (working as such today) generally. This brings us to the realization that formalist art and criticism accepts as a definition of art one that exists solely on morphological grounds. While a vast quantity of similar looking objects or images (or visually related objects or images) may seem to be related (or connected) because of a similarity of visual/experiential â€Å"readings,† one cannot claim from this an artistic or conceptual relationship. It is obvious then that formalist criticism’s reliance on morphology leads necessarily with a bias toward the morphology of traditional art. And in this sense their criticism is not related to a â€Å"scientific method† or any sort of empiricism (as Michael Fried, with his detailed descriptions of paintings and other â€Å"scholarly† paraphernalia would want us to believe). Formalist criticism is no more than an analysis of the physical attributes of particular objects that happen to exist in a morphological context. But this doesn’t add any knowledge (or facts) to our understanding of the nature or function of art. And neither does it comment on whether or not the objects analyzed are even works of art, in that formalist critics always bypass the conceptual element in works of art. Exactly why they don’t comment on the conceptual element in works of art is precisely because formalist art is only art by virtue of its resemblance to earlier works of art. It’s a mindless art. Or, as Lucy Lippard so succinctly described Jules Olitski’s paintings: â€Å"they’re visual Muzak.† 14 Formalist critics and artists alike do not question the nature of art, but as I have said elsewhere: Being an artist now means to question the nature of art. If one is questioning the nature of painting, one cannot be questioning the nature of art. If an artist accepts painting (or sculpture) he is accepting the tradition that goes with it. That’s because the word art is general and the word painting is specific. Painting is a kind of art. If you make paintings you are already accepting (not questioning) the nature of art. One is then accepting the nature of art to be the European tradition of a painting-sculpture dichotomy.15 The strongest objection one can raise against a morphological justification for traditional art is that morphological notions of art embody an implied a priori concept of art’s possibilities. And such an a priori concept of the nature of art (as separate from analytically framed art propositions or â€Å"work,† which I will discuss later) makes it, indeed, a priori: impossible to question the nature of art. And this questioning of the nature of art is a very important concept in understanding the function of art. The function of art, as a question, was first raised by Marcel Duchamp. In fact it is Marcel Duchamp whom we can credit with giving art its own identity. (One can certainly see a tendency toward this self-identification of art beginning with Manet and Cà ©zanne through to Cubism,16 but their works are timid and ambiguous by comparison with Duchamp’s.) â€Å"Modern† art and the work before seemed connected by virtue of their morphology. Another way of putting it would be that art’s â€Å"language† remained the same, but it was saying new things. The event that made conceivable the realization that it was possible to â€Å"speak another language† and still make sense in art was Marcel Duchamp’s first unassisted Ready-made. With the unassisted Ready-made, art changed its focus from the form of the language to what was being said. Which means that it changed the nature of art from a question of morphology to a question of function. This change – one from â€Å"appearance† to â€Å"conception† – was the beginning of â€Å"modern† art and the beginning of conceptual art. All art (after Duchamp) is conceptual (in nature) because art only exists conceptually. The â€Å"value† of particular artists after Duchamp can be weighed according to how much they questioned the nature of art; which is another way of saying â€Å"what they added to the conception of art† or what wasn’t there before they started. Artists question the nature of art by presenting new propositions as to art’s nature. And to do this one cannot concern oneself with the handed-down â€Å"language† of traditional art, as this activity is based on the assumption that there is only one way of framing art propositions. But the very stuff of art is indeed greatly related to â€Å"creating† new propositions. The case is often made – particularly in reference to Duchamp – that objects of art (such as the Ready-mades, of course, but all art is implied in this) are judged as objets d’art in later years and the artists’ intentions become irrelevant. Such an argument is the case of a preconceived notion ordering together not necessarily related facts. The point is this: aesthetics, as we have pointed out, are conceptually irrelevant to art. Thus, any physical thing can become objet d’art, that is to say, can be considered tasteful, aesthetically pleasing, etc. But this has no bearing on the object’s application to an art context; that is, its functioning in an art context. (E.g., if a collector takes a painting, attaches legs, and uses it as a dining table it’s an act unrelated to art or the artist because, as art, that wasn’t the artist’s intention.) And what holds true for Duchamp’s work applies as well to most of the art after him. In other words, the value of Cubism – for instance – is its idea in the realm of art, not the physical or visual qualities seen in a specific painting, or the particularization of certain colors or shapes. For these colors and shapes are the art’s â€Å"language,† not its meaning conceptually as art. To look upon a Cubist â€Å"masterwork† now as art is nonsensical, conceptually speaking, as far as art is concerned. (That visual information that was unique in Cubism’s language has now been generally absorbed and has a lot to do with the way in which one deals with painting â€Å"linguistically.† [E.g., what a Cubist painting meant experimentally and conceptually to, say, Gertrude Stein, is beyond our speculation because the same painting then â€Å"meant† something different than it does now.]) The â€Å"value† now of an original Cubist painting is not unlike, in most respects, an original manuscript by Lord Byron, or The Spirit of St. Louis as it is seen in the Smithsonian Institution. (Indeed, museums fill the very same function as the Smithsonian Institution – why else would the Jeu de Paume wing of the Louvre exhibit Cà ©zanne’s and Van Gogh’s palettes as proudly as they do their paintings?) Actual works of art are little more than historical curiosities. As far as art is concerned Van Gogh’s paintings aren’t worth any more than his palette is. They are both â€Å"collectors items.†17 Art â€Å"lives† through influencing other art, not by existing as the physical residue of an artist’s ideas. The reason that different artists from the past are â€Å"brought alive† again is because some aspect of their work becomes â€Å"usable† by living artists. That there is no â€Å"truth† as to what art is seems quite unrealized. What is the function of art, or the nature of art? If we continue our analogy of the forms art takes as being art’s language one can realize then that a work of art is a kind of proposition presented within the context of art as a comment on art. We can then go further and analyze the types of â€Å"propo sitions.† A. J. Ayer’s evaluation of Kant’s distinction between analytic and synthetic is useful to us here: â€Å"A proposition is analytic when its validity depends solely on the definitions of the symbols it contains, and synthetic when its validity is determined by the facts of experience.†18 The analogy I will attempt to make is one between the art condition and the condition of the analytic proposition. In that they don’t appear to be believable as anything else, or be about anything (other than art) the forms of art most clearly finally referable only to art have been forms closest to analytical propositions. Works of art are analytic propositions. That is, if viewed within their context – as art – they provide no information whatsoever about any matter of fact. A work of art is a tautology in that it is a presentation of the artist’s intention, that is, he is saying that that particular work of art is art, which means, is a definition of art. Thus, that it is art is true a priori (which is what Judd means when he states that â€Å"if someone calls it art, it’s art†). Indeed, it is nearly impossible to discuss art in general terms without talking in tautologies – for to attempt to â€Å"grasp† art by any other â€Å"handle† is merely to focus on another aspect or quality of the proposition, which is usually irrelevant to the artwork’s â€Å"art condition.† One begins to realize that art’s â€Å"art condition† is a conceptual state. That the language forms that the artist frames his propositions in are often â€Å"private† codes or languages is an inevitable outcome of art’s freedom from morphological constrictions; and it follows from this that one has to be familiar with contemporary art to appreciate it and understand it. Likewise one understands why the â€Å"man in the street† is intolerant to artistic art and always demands art in a tr aditional â€Å"language.† (And one understands why formalist art sells â€Å"like hot cakes.†) Only in painting and sculpture did the artists all speak the same language. What is called â€Å"Novelty Art† by the formalists is often the attempt to find new languages, although a new language doesn’t necessarily mean the framing of new propositions: e.g., most kinetic and electronic art. Another way of stating, in relation to art, what Ayer asserted about the analytic method in the context of language would be the following: The validity of artistic propositions is not dependent on any empirical, much less any aesthetic, presupposition about the nature of things. For the artist, as an analyst, is not directly concerned with the physical properties of things. He is concerned only with the way (1) in which art is capable of conceptual growth and (2) how his propositions are capable of logically following that growth.19 In other words, the propositions of art are not factual, but linguistic in character – that is, they do not describe the behavior of physical, o r even mental objects; they express definitions of art, or the formal consequences of definitions of art. Accordingly, we can say that art operates on a logic. For we shall see that the characteristic mark of a purely logical inquiry is that it is concerned with the formal consequences of our definitions (of art) and not with questions of empirical fact.20 To repeat, what art has in common with logic and mathematics is that it is a tautology; i.e., the â€Å"art idea† (or â€Å"work†) and art are the same and can be appreciated as art without going outside the context of art for verification. On the other hand, let us consider why art cannot be (or has difficulty when it attempts to be) a synthetic proposition. Or, that is to say, when the truth or falsity of its assertion is verifiable on empirical grounds. Ayer states: . . . The criterion by which we determine the validity of an a priori or analytical proposition is not sufficient to determine the validity of an empirical or synthetic proposition. For it is characteristic of empirical propositions that their validity is not purely formal. To say that a geometrical proposition, or a system of geometrical propositions, is false, is to say that it is self-contradictory. But an empirical proposition, or a system of empirical propositions, may be free from contradiction and still be false. It is said to be false, not because it is formally defective, but because it fails to satisfy some material criterion.21 The unreality of â€Å"realistic† art is due to its framing as an art proposition in synthetic terms: one is always tempted to â€Å"verify† the proposition empirically. Realism’s synthetic state does not bring one to a circular swing back into a dialogue with the larger framework of questions about the nature of art (as does the work of Malevich, Mondrian, Pollock, Reinhardt, early Rauschenberg, Johns, Lichtenstein, Warhol, Andre, Judd, Flavin, LeWitt, Morris, and others), but rather, one is flung out of art’s â€Å"orbit† into the â€Å"infinite space† of the human condition. Pure Expressionism, continuing with Ayer’s terms, could be considered as such: â€Å"A sentence which consisted of demonstrative symbols would not express a genuine proposition. It would be a mere ejaculation, in no way characterizing that to which it was supposed to refer.† Expressionist works are usually such â€Å"ejaculations† presented in the morphological language of traditional art. If Pollock is important it is because he painted on loose canvas horizontally to the floor. What isn’t important is that he later put those drippings over stretchers and hung them parallel to the wall. (In other words what is important in art is what one brings to it, not one’s adoption of what was previously existing.) What is even less important to art is Pollock’s notions of â€Å"self-expression† because those kinds of subjective meanings are useless to anyone other than those involved with him personally. And their â€Å"specific† quality puts them outside of art’s context. â€Å"I do not make art,† Richard Serra says, â€Å"I am engaged in an activity; if someone wants to call it art, that’s his business, but it’s not up to me to decide that. That’s all figured out later.† Serra, then, is very much aware of the implications of his work. If Serra is indeed just â€Å"figuring out what lead does† (gravitationally, molecularly, etc.), why should anyone think of it as art? If he doesn’t take the responsibility of it being art, who can, or should? His work certainly appears to be empirically verifiable: lead can do, and be used for, many physical activities. In itself this does anything but lead us into a dialogue about the nature of art. In a sense then he is a primitive. He has no idea about art. How is it then that we know about â€Å"his activity†? Because he has told us it is art by his actions after â€Å"his activity† has taken place. That is, by the fact that he is with several galleries, puts the physical residue of his activity in museums (and sells them to art collectors – but as we have pointed out, collectors are irrelevant to the â€Å"condition of art† of a work). That he denies his work is art but plays the artist is more than just a paradox. Serra secretly feels that â€Å"arthood† is arrived at empirically. Thus, as Ayer has stated: There are no absolutely certain empirical propositions. It is only tautologies that are certain. Empirical questions are one and all hypotheses, which may be confirmed or discredited in actual sense experience. And the propositions in which we record the observations that verify these hypotheses are themselves hypotheses which are subject to the test of further sense experience. Thus there is no final proposition.22 What one finds all throughout the writings of Ad Reinhardt is this very similar thesis of â€Å"artas-art,† and that â€Å"art is always dead, and a ‘living’ art is a deception.†23 Reinhardt had a very clear idea about the nature of art, and his importance is far from recognized. Because forms of art that can be considered synthetic propositions are verifiable by the world, that is to say, to understand these propositions one must leave the tautological-like framework of art and consider â€Å"outside† information. But to consider it as art it is necessary to ignore this same outside information, because outside information (experiential qualities, to note) has its own intrinsic worth. And to comprehend this worth one does not need a state of â€Å"art condition.† From this it is easy to realize that art’s viability is not connected to the presentation of visual (or other) kinds of experience. That that may have been one of art’s extraneous functions in the preceding centuries is not unlikely. After all, man in even the nineteenth century lived in a fairly standardized visual environment. That is, it was ordinarily predictable as to what he would be coming into contact with day after day. His visual environment in the part of the world in which he lived was fairly consistent. In our time we have an experientially drastically richer environment. One can fly all over the earth in a matter of hours and days, not months. We have the cinema, and color television, as well as the man-made spectacle of the lights of Las Vegas or the skyscrapers of New York City. The whole world is there to be seen, and the whole world can watch man walk on the moon from their living rooms. Certainly art or objects of painting and sculpture cannot be expected to compete experientially with this? The notion of â€Å"use† is relevant to art and its â€Å"language.† Recently the box or cube form has been used a great deal within the context of art. (Take for instance its use by Judd, Morris, LeWitt, Bladen, Smith, Bell, and McCracken – not even mentioning the quantity of boxes and cubes that came after.) The difference between all the various uses of the box or cube form is directly related to the differences in the intentions of the artists. Further, as is particularly seen in Judd’s work, the use of the box or cube form illustrates very well our earlier claim that an object is only art when placed in the context of art. A few examples will point this out. One could say that if one of Judd’s box forms was seen filled with debris, seen placed in an industrial setting, or even merely seen sitting on a street corner, it would not be identified with art. It follows then that understanding and consideration of it as an artwork is necessary a priori to viewing it in order to â€Å"see† it as a work of art. Advance information about the concept of art and about an artist’s concepts is necessary to the appreciation and understanding of contemporary art. Any and all of the physical attributes (qualities) of contemporary works, if considered separately and/or specifically, are irrelevant to the art concept. The art concept (as Judd said, though he didn’t mean it this way) must be considered in its whole. To consider a concept’s parts is invariably to consider aspects that are irrelevant to its art condition – or like reading parts of a definition. It comes as no surprise that the art with the least fixed morphology is the example from which we decipher the nature of the general term â€Å"art.† For where there is a context existing separately of its morphology and consisting of its function one is more likely to find results less conforming and predictable. It is in modern art’s possession of a â€Å"language† with the shortest history that the plausibility of the abandonment of that â€Å"language† becomes most possible. It is understandable then that the art that came out of Western painting and sculpture is the most energetic, questioning (of its nature), and the least assuming of all the general â€Å"art† concerns. In the final analysis, however, all of the arts have but (in Wittgenstein’s terms) a â€Å"family† resemblance. Yet the various qualities relatable to an â€Å"art condition† possessed by poetry, the novel, the cinema, the theatre, and various forms of mus ic, etc., is that aspect of them most reliable to the function of art as asserted here. Is not the decline of poetry relatable to the implied metaphysics from poetry’s use of â€Å"common† language as an art language?24 In New York the last decadent stages of poetry can be seen in the move by â€Å"Concrete† poets recently toward the use of actual objects and theatre.25 Can it be that they feel the unreality of their art form? We see now that the axioms of a geometry are simply definitions, and that the theorems of a geometry are simply the logical consequences of these definitions. A geometry is not in itself about physical space; in itself it cannot be said to be â€Å"about† anything. But we can use a geometry to reason about physical space. That is to say, once we have given the axioms a physical interpretation, we can proceed to apply the theorems to the objects which satisfy the axioms. Whether a geometry can be applied to the actual physical world or not, is an empirical question which falls outside the scope of geometry itself. There is no sense, therefore, in asking which of the various geometries known to us are false and which are true. Insofar as they are all free from contradiction, they are all true. The proposition which states that a certain application of a geometry is possible is not itself a proposition of that geometry. All that the geometry itself tells us is that if anything can be brought under the definitions, it will also satisfy the theorems. It is therefore a purely logical system, and its propositions are purely analytic propositions. –A. J. Ayer26 Here then I propose rests the viability of art. In an age when traditional philosophy is unreal because of its assumptions, art’s ability to exist will depend not only on its not performing a service – as entertainment, visual (or other) experience, or decoration – which is something easily replaced by kitsch culture, and technology, but, rather, it will remain viable by not assuming a philosophical stance; for in art’s unique character is the capacity to remain aloof from philosophical judgments. It is in this context that art shares similarities with logic, mathematics, and, as well, science. But whereas the other endeavors are useful, art is not. Art indeed exists for its own sake. In this period of man, after philosophy and religion, art may possibly be one endeavor that fulfills what another age might have called â€Å"man’s spiritual needs.† Or, another way of putting it might be that art deals analogously with the state of things â€Å"beyond physics† where philosophy had to make assertions. And art’s strength is that even the preceding sentence is an assertion, and cannot be verified by art. Art’s only claim is for art. Art is the definition of art. NOTES * Reprinted from Studio International (October, 1969). 1 Morton White, The Age of Analysis (New York: Mentor Books), p. 14. 2 Ibid., p. 15. 3 I mean by this Existentialism and Phenomenology. Even Merleau-Ponty, with his middle-of-the-road position between empiricism and rationalism, cannot express his philosophy without the use of words (thus using concepts); and following this, how can one discuss experience without sharp distinctions between ourselves and the world? 4 Sir James Jeans, Physics and Philosophy (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press), p. 17. 5 Ibid., p. 190. 6 Ibid., p. 190. 7 The task such philosophy has taken upon itself is the only â€Å"function† it could perform without making philosophic assertions. 8 This is dealt with in the following section. 9 I would like to make it clear, however, that I intend to speak for no one else. I arrived at these conclusions alone, and indeed, it is from this thinking that my art since 1966 (if not before) evo lved. Only recently did I realize after meeting Terry Atkinson that he and Michael Baldwin share similar, though certainly not identical, opinions to mine. 10 Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language. 11 The conceptual level of the work of Kenneth Noland, Jules Olitski, Morris Louis, Ron Davis, Anthony Caro, John Hoyland, Dan Christensen, et al., is so dismally low, that any that is there is supplied by the critics promoting it. This is seen later. 12 Michael Fried’s reasons for using Greenberg’s rationale reflect his background (and most of the other formalist critics) as a â€Å"scholar,† but more of it is due to his desire, I suspect, to bring his scholarly studies into the modern world. One can easily sympathize with his desire to connect, say, Tiepolo with Jules Olitski. One should never forget, however, that a historian loves history more than anything, even art. 13 Lucy Lippard uses this quotation in a footnote to Ad Reinhardt’s retrospective catalogue, January, 1967, p. 28. 14 Lucy Lippard, â€Å"Constellation by Harsh Daylight: The Whitney Annual,† Hudson Review, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Spring, 1968). 15 Arthur R. Rose, â€Å"Four Interviews,† Arts Magazine (February, 1969). 16 As Terry Atkinson pointed out in his introduction to Art-Language (Vol. 1, No. 1), the Cubists never questioned if art had morphological characteristics, but which ones in painting were acceptable. 17 When someone â€Å"buys† a Flavin he isn’t buying a light show, for if he was he could just go to a hardware store and get the goods for considerably less. He isn’t â€Å"buying† anything. He is subsidizing Flavin’s activity as an artist. 18 A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth, and Logic (New York: Dover Publications), p. 78. 19 Ibid., p. 57. 20 Ibid., p. 57. 21 Ibid., p.90. 22 Ibid., p. 94. 23 Ad Reinhardt’s retrospective catalogue (Jewish Museum, January, 1967) written by Lucy Lippard, p. 12. 24 It is poetry’s use of common language to attempt to say the unsayable that is problematic, not any inherent problem in the use of language within the context of art. 25 Ironically, many of them call themselves â€Å"Conceptual Poets.† Much of this work is very similar to Walter de Maria’s work and this is not coincidental; de Maria’s work functions as a kind of â€Å"object† poetry, and his intentions are very poetic: he really wants his work to change men’s lives. 26 Op. cit., p. 82.

A Critique of Jack Londons To Build a Fire :: London To Build a Fire Essays

A Critique of Jack London's To Build a Fire Karen Rhodes analyzed to build a fire in a cultural context. He believed "London's works were written so that he could survive in a world he increasingly came to see as "red in tooth and claw""(1). It is obviously the story of a man fighting the stresses of Nature. According to Rhodes, to build a fire was drawn from the year London spent in Canada's Yukon Territory. London depicted arctic and very cold conditions throughout the story. Rhodes believed to build a fire represented London's Naturalistic Flavor. "It pits one man alone against the overwhelming forces of nature"(Karen Rhodes, 1). He also believed to build a fire can either be interpreted as the Pioneer American experience or can be read as an allegory for the journey of human existence (Karen Rhodes, 1). According to Rhodes, there are two versions of to build a fire; the first one was written in 1902 while the second one was written in 1908. We are studying the 1908 version." It has come to be known as everyman trekking thr ough the Naturalistic Universe"(Karen Rhodes, 1). To build a fire is indeed the story of a man trekking through the universe alone except for his dog. The man's death at the end was the culmination of the story. " His death came through no lapse of observation, no lack of diligence, no real folly but the nature of himself and his environment" (Karen Rhodes, 2). I think his is a fine criticism of London's to build a fire. London had made use of his life experiences in writing the story. I agree with Karen Rhodes observation that to build afirecan be interpreted as the story of a man in the journey of human existence. However, I think her view of to build a fire as an American experience comes from the fact that she is an American. I agree with her theory that the Man's death in the end was due to the nature of the man and his environment. The protagonist in to build a fire did nor have any grasp of the danger he was in. he tried to reason himself through it all. He thought, " Maybe, if he ran on, his feet will thaw out; and anyway if he ran far enough, he would reach camp and the boys. (Jack London, 157).

Personal Reward and Stimulation

Assessment task 4 : project 1 Ground rules for how a team will operate: Current level: We treat each other with respect. We intend to develop personal relationships to enhance trust and open communication. We value constructive feedback. We will avoid being defensive and give feedback in a constructive manner. We strive to recognize and celebrate individual and team accomplishments. As team members, we will pitch in to help where necessary to help solve problems and catch-up on behind schedule work Team member opinion: Team members can speak freely and in turn and all participants will have a sayNo one person will be allowed to dominate the discussion Team members will not speak on behalf of anyone else Team members will say what they think and not what they think someone else wants to hear Strengths and weaknesses Strengths: More friendliness, confiding in each other, and sharing personal problems; discussion of the team’s dynamics A sense of team cohesion, a common spirit an d goals Establishing and maintain team methods and boundaries Weaknesses: Arguing among members even when they agree on the real issues Defensiveness and competition; factions and â€Å"choosing sides†Establishing unrealistic goals Expressing concern about excessive work My Recommendations: Discuss team expectations Communicate; make sure everybody stay in the loop. Use organizational tools. 2 COMUNICATING RESPONSABILITIES. Current level By communicating responsabilities, you will be able to obtain desired results/outcomes, improve an employee's performance, and develop new skills. When you do meet to discuss these expectations, standards, and goals, meet in a quiet place without interruptions and have the job description and objectives in hand.Be sure to discuss the expectations with the employee and confirm that the employee understands the tasks and responsibilities of the position. Meet in a quiet place without interruptions 1. Have the employee's position description as well as unit's business plan and/or objectives at the meeting 2. Talk with employee about expectations, 3. Confirm that employee understands the tasks, responsibilities of the position 4. Ask the employee for comments, suggestions on performance standards 5. Finalize performance standards with employee, confirm the employee's understanding 6.Define performance standards at each level of performance, e. g. , meets expectations, exceeds expectations. Team member opinion Communication is one of the keys to running a successful business. And no one in a business should be exempt from workplace communication responsibilities. All employees and management of all companies no matter what size must learn proper business communications to insure excellence and productivity in the workplace Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Skilled communicators recognize that effective communication takes forethought.For example, smart managers first evaluate their intended audience to gauge such factors as the current mood, audience education level and the context of the situation, and they frame their message accordingly. Effective communicators also evaluate all the possible channels available for communicating, such as face-to- face, over the phone and via email, and they choose the channel best suited for that particular message and audience. Also key to communicating effectively is learning to engage in actively listening: It takes two people — a sender and a receiver — to communicate.Effective communicators avoid distractions and focus on more than just the spoken word. They evaluate body language and tone of voice for clues to gauge whether their intended audience comprehends the message. Skilled communicators in the workplace also encourage open feedback, recognizing that communication is a constant process. Weaknesses: Typical weaknesses in communication include failure to adequately consider the needs of the audience. For example, rushed employees trying to me et deadlines often overload their audience with information, losing important details in the process.Additionally, many communicators inadequately evaluate their audience and ignore the impact of such crucial details as cultural background or education level on the communication process. For instance, industry experts who speak only in jargon will lose members of a general audience lacking experience with those terms. Ineffective communicators also underestimate the affect of physical distractions and emotional interference on their audience. Audiences often discount a speaker’s message if she uses bad grammar, appears sloppy or lacks enthusiasm for the topic.My Recommendation Smart business managers encourage communication strengths in the workplace by modeling superior communication skills with their own messages. Effective communicators educate themselves on the their employees’ individual frames of reference and adapt their messages accordingly. They recognize that meaning exists not in words, but in the people who use those words, and they use language that their audience will understand, avoiding slang, jargon or colloquial expressions.Most important, however, smart business managers actively listen to their audience, ask questions and encourage feedback to ensure that both the intended information and meaning of a message are understood. 3 Share tasks and activities Current level A Task is an activity that needs to be accomplished within a defined period of time or by a deadline. A task can be broken down into assignments which should also have a defined start and end date or a deadline for completion. One or more assignments on a task puts the task under execution.Completion of all assignments on a specific task normally renders the task completed. Tasks can be linked together to create dependencies. Strengths and weaknesses Strength Leaders communicate where they want to take their companies. They also organize groups for particular task s and ensure that group members have a clear understanding of their individual roles. The task- oriented is well suited to structured work environments, such as law enforcement and manufacturing assembly lines, in which repeating well-defined processes usually results in consistently high levels of productivity and quality.Weaknesses In most projects, tasks may suffer one of two major drawbacks: Task dependency: Which is normal as most tasks rely on others to get done. However, this can lead to the stagnation of a project when many tasks cannot get started unless others are finished. Unclear understanding of the term complete: For example, if a task is 90% complete, does this mean that it will take only 1/9 of the time already spent on this task to finish it? Although this is mathematically sound, it is rarely the case when it comes to practice 4 Planing and schedule activities Current level

Article Rebuttal Essay

The author stated that, â€Å"There is a difference between a married couple and a same-sex couple in a long-term relationship. The difference is between the duties that marriage imposes on married people–not rights, but rather onerous obligations–which do not apply to same-sex love. † This statement, in my opinion, is completely untrue. All relationships can be difficult and time consuming, the statement would have more truth if the author of was talking about all relationships or marriages. When reading the article, I took every word as people that are in a same sex relationship can’t have a normal marriage or a normal family and normal life and that is why same sex marriage will ultimately fail. The only thing that is different about same sex marriage is that the genders of both people are the same. This doesn’t mean that the two people can’t have children, it just means they can‘t have them in the traditional way. Homosexuals that are married can have a normal life; they just might have to face other judgmental people, which they face even without being married. This author had no credibility, no fact or anything to back up his argument. There were not any reliable sources in this argument which makes me believe that everything about this article was just the opinion of the author. While I believe that everyone is entitled to their own opinions, I believe one should have reliable sources and make valid points before writing an article and making it public especially on such a controversial topic. Reference; http://www. weeklystandard. com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/016/533narty. asp

Moscow On The Hudson Report essays

Moscow On The Hudson Report essays The film, Moscow On The Hudson, brings the viewers to the height of the Cold War, during World War II. In the beginning, the movie is set in communist Russia, but it soon advances to democratic America. The Russians thought poorly of Americans, and constantly referred to them as "whores with disease." This film proves to Americans how fortunate they are to live in America, where freedom is not just an unapproachable dream, but is a way of life, a reality. Vladimir, the main character, is a Russian, dwelling in the Soviet Union with his family, which includes his mother, father, sister, and grandfather who was a war hero in World War II. In the Soviet Union, Vladimir is a musician in the circus, and plays the saxophone. The circus that he is part of, visits New York. The government poses many restrictions on the group while in America, such as to stay away from the subways, Times Square, Rockefeller Center, and Greenwich Village. In New York, the foreigners are in total awe. This was an entirely new experience to them. Some instances why this was completely stunning to them were they were able to get toilet paper, which was a luxury to them, practically anywhere, whereas in Russia, they may only receive toilet paper when they are told, and must wait on a line that stretches for blocks, also in New York they were able to go shopping, and buy designerwear by famous designers such as Calvin Kline. The main appeal of America, though, was freedom. As the Russians receive their last taste of America and its freedom, by shopping at Bloomingdales, while Vladimir's friend is too much of a coward to follow through, Vladimir defects in the department store, causing complete chaos. Vladimir's decision to defect was an audacious one, knowing he would have to sacrifice seeing his family, grandfather, or girlfriend again, and not knowing a soul in America, take the risk to try to get by on his own, and if ...

Basic Model of the Atom - Atomic Theory

Basic Model of the Atom - Atomic Theory All matter consists of particles called atoms. Atoms bond to each other to form elements, which contain only one kind of atom. Atoms of different elements form compounds, molecules, and objects. Key Takeaways: Model of the Atom An atom is a building block of matter that cannot be broken apart using any chemical means. Nuclear reactions can alter atoms.The three parts of the atom are protons (positively charged), neutrons (neutral charge), and electrons (negatively charged).Protons and neutrons form the atomic nucleus. Electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus, but are moving so quickly they fall toward it (orbit) rather than stick to protons.The identity of an atom is determined by its number of protons. This is also called its atomic number. Parts of an Atom Atoms consist of three parts: Protons: Protons are the basis of atoms. While an atom can gain or lose neutrons and electrons, its identity is tied to the number of protons. The symbol for proton number is the capital letter Z.Neutrons: The number of neutrons in an atom is indicated by the letter N. The atomic mass of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons or Z N. The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom.Electrons: Electrons are much smaller than protons or neutrons and orbit around them. What You Need to Know About Atoms This is a list of the basic characteristics of atoms: Atoms cannot be divided using chemicals. They do consist of parts, which include protons, neutrons, and electrons, but an atom is a basic chemical building block of matter. Nuclear reactions, such as radioactive decay and fission, can break apart atoms.Each electron has a negative electrical charge.Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The charge of a proton and an electron are equal in magnitude, yet opposite in sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each other.  Like charges (protons and protons, electrons and electrons) repel each other.Each neutron is electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do not have a charge and are not electrically attracted to either electrons or protons.Protons and neutrons are about the same size as each other and are much larger than electrons. The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron. The mass of a proton is 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron.The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge. Electrons move around outside the nucleus. Electrons are organized into shells, which is a region where an electron is most likely found. Simple models show electrons orbiting the nuclear in a near-circular orbit, like planets orbiting a star, but real behavior is much more complex. Some electron shells resemble spheres, but others look more like dumb bells or other shapes. Technically, an electron can be found anywhere within the atom, but spends most of its time in the region described by an orbital. Electrons can also move between orbitals.Atoms are very small. The average size of an atom is about 100 picometers or one ten-billionth of a meter.Almost all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus; almost all of the volume of an atom is occupied by electrons.The number of protons (also known as its atomic number) determines the element. Varying the number of neutrons results in isotopes. Varying the number of electrons results in ions. Isotopes and ions of an atom with a constant num ber of protons are all variations of a single element. The particles within an atom are bound together by powerful forces. In general, electrons are easier to add or remove from an atom than a proton or neutron. Chemical reactions largely involve atoms or groups of atoms and the interactions between their electrons. Does the atomic theory make sense to you? If so, heres a quiz you can take to test your understanding of the concepts. Sources Dalton, John (1803). On the Absorption of Gases by Water and Other Liquids, in Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.Thomson, J. J. (August 1901). On bodies smaller than atoms. The Popular Science Monthly. pp. 323–335.Pullman, Bernard (1998). The Atom in the History of Human Thought. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 978-0-19-515040-7.

What Is the PSAT 10 Complete Guide

What Is the PSAT 10 Complete Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Most high school students have heard of the PSAT NMSQT- aka the practice SAT that doubles as a qualifying exam for the National Merit competition. Fewer have heard of the PSAT 10, which is a version of the PSAT designed specifically for sophomores. What exactly is the PSAT 10, and why should you consider taking it? Learn all about it here. What Is the PSAT 10? The PSAT 10 is a practice SAT exam that debuted in the 2015-16 school year. It is aligned to the SAT,meaning it has similar question types and the same Reading, Writing, and Math sections. Its scores are based ona total scale of 320-1520. Unlike the SAT, which is designed for juniors and seniors, the PSAT 10 is designed specifically for sophomores in high school. As a result, its questions are not as difficult as those on the SAT. It's essential to know that the PSAT 10 is the same test as the PSAT/NMSQT, which is designed for both sophomores and juniors.In other words, all questions, sections, and time limits are the same for these two tests. So why do these exams have different names then? Here are the two major differences between the PSAT 10 and PSAT/NMSQT: The PSAT 10 is offered at a different time than the PSAT/NMSQT is: While the PSAT 10 is offeredonce a year to sophomores in the spring, the PSAT/NMSQT is offered once a year in the fall.School districts can choose when to administer the PSAT 10. This year, it must be between February 25 and March 29, 2019, or April 1 and April 26, 2019. The PSAT 10 doesnotqualify you for National Merit as the PSAT/NMSQT does: Even if you get a really highscore on it, don't expect to win any scholarships or awards. It's just an SAT practice test- that's it! What Is the PSAT/NMSQT? As stated above, the PSAT NMSQT is, content-wise, the same test as the PSAT 10. Like the PSAT 10, the PSAT/NMSQT is a practice SAT exam and is thus highly similar to the SAT.However, since the PSAT NMSQT is designed specifically for sophomores and juniors in high school, it's not nearly as difficult as the SAT is. We’ll explore the different difficulty levels in detail below. The PSAT NMSQT can qualify you for the National Merit competition but only ifyou take it as a junior and get a high enough scoreon it. While sophomores may take this test, too, they're not eligible for National Merit, no matter how high their scores might be. Finally,the PSAT NMSQT is offered only in the fall, typically in October. This year, the test will be held on Wednesday, October 10, 2018; there will also be a Saturday option on October 13, and an alternate date on Wednesday, October 24. Want to get a head start on the PSAT NMQST? We have the industry's leading PSAT prep program. Built by Harvard grads and SAT full scorers, the program learns your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics, then customizes your prep program to you so that you get the most effective prep possible. Check out our 5-day free trial today: Timing and Scoring of the PSAT 10 The PSAT 10 is two hours and 45 minutes long, the same length as the PSAT NMSQT. Here are the details of each test section: PSAT Section Total Time # of Questions Reading 60 minutes 47 Writing and Language 35 minutes 44 Math 70 minutes 48 Even though there are more Reading and Writing questions than there are Math questions, Math is worth half your total score,between 160 and 760 points. Reading and Writing are combined to give you a single Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (EBRW) section score, also between 160 and 760 points. Therefore, the PSAT 10 is scored between 320 and 1520 (160–760 each for Math and EBRW). Score scale for the SAT, PSAT NMSQT, PSAT 10, and PSAT 8/9, via the College Board. This puts the PSAT 10 and the PSAT/NMSQT on a similar scale as the SAT, which is scored between 400 and 1600 (200 and 800 for Math and EBRW, respectively). The idea behind these similar scoring systems is that the PSAT can be used to predict your score on the SAT; however, it can't predict an exact score since the SAT is a more difficult test. This is why the scoring scales don’t match up exactly. What Does the PSAT 10 Test? The content and format of the PSAT 10 is identical to that of the PSAT/NMSQT and very similar to that of the SAT. The only major difference is that the PSAT 10 is shorter than the SAT is, and its questions do not get as difficult since they're designed for students at the sophomore level. Fortunately, the College Board offers specific guidelines as to how the PSAT differs from the SAT, primarily in terms of difficulty and content.We will summarize this information by section to give you an idea of what to expect on the PSAT 10. PSAT 10 Reading Section All questions in the PSAT 10 Reading section are multiple choice and based on passages.You'll have 60 minutes to answer 47 questions. Read below for more on what the passages are like and how difficult the questions are. What Are the Passages Like? The Reading section passages are drawn from American and world literature, history/social studies articles, and science articles. You'll get four passages and a set of paired passages for which you'll be asked to compare them. Some passages include informational graphics, such as charts, graphs, and tables, and it’s your job to be able to break those down and interpret them accurately. In other words, the Reading section goes beyond your basic "read the passage, answer the questions" standardized test. According to the College Board's comparison of the PSAT and SAT Reading tests, both sections cover text levelsfrom 9th grade to 10th grade,as well as some postsecondary, or college-level, texts.In addition, the difficulty of the graphical representations are deemed "somewhat challenging to challenging" for both the PSAT and SAT. So what does all of this mean? While the difficulty of Reading passages are generally the same for both tests,the total number of words in these passages differs. The SAT contains 3,250 words total in its passages, whereas the PSAT contains just 3,000 words total. What Are the Questions Like? Both the SAT and PSAT emphasize the following skills, or subscores, in their Reading sections: Analysis in history/social studies passages Analysis in science passages Interpretation of words in context Command of evidence Analysis of history/social studies and analysis of science mean that you'll have to analyze patterns in the writing and choose answers explaining how and why certain phenomena are true. Interpretation of words in context means that you'll be asked to define a word’s meaning given its context in the passage.Note that you won’t be asked obscure vocab questions. Finally, command of evidence tests your ability to identify parts or words in a passage that support or give evidence for specific claims, conclusions, and/or interpretations. Take a look at theofficial PSAT example question below to get an idea of what a PSAT 10 Reading question looks like. Notice how the emphasis is on what the sentence means in the context of the passage (not shown): PSAT 10 Writing Section For the PSAT 10 Writing section, you will also be working with passages. But for these questions, you'll be put in the role of an editor who is improving a passage. Like the PSAT 10 Reading section, all questions are multiple choice.You'll have 35 minutes to answer 44 questions. What Are the Passages Like? Passages on the PSAT 10 Writing section are either arguments, informative/explanatory texts or nonfiction narratives. They address topics related to careers, history/social studies, science, and the humanities. Some passages come with informational graphics, such as charts, graphs, and tables. Passages are long and require you to answer questions about the whole passage’s organization and meaning. However,there is also more fine-grained editing. For example, you might have to determine the correct placement of a comma in part of a sentence. The texts vary in complexity, from those found in high school classes to college-level. Again, the PSAT 10 covers a very similar variety of texts as those on the SAT Writing section. What Are the Questions Like? Just like on the Reading section, the Writing questions will emphasize the following four subscores: Analysis in history/social studies passages Analysis in science passages Interpretation of words in context Command of evidence Moreover, two other subscores calledexpression of ideas (i.e., topic development, organization, and rhetorical effectiveness) and standard English conventions will be tested. What these mean is that in addition to analyzing passages’ meanings, you'll also have to correct their content on a technical level. Check out the two official sample PSAT Writing questions below: PSAT 10 Math Section For the PSAT Math section, you'll get 70 minutes to answer 48 questions.Most questions will be multiple choice, but there are some student-produced (grid-in) responses;these account for about 17% of Math questions. Like the SAT Math section, the PSAT Math section is divided into two parts: a No Calculator Math Test, for which use of a calculator is not permitted, and a Calculator Math Test, for which use of a calculator is permitted. Note that you will get grid-ins on each subsection. Here is a brief overview of each Math subsection: PSAT 10 Math Subsection Total Time # of Questions No Calculator 25 minutes 17 Calculator 45 minutes 31 The emphasis in the Math section is on problem solving, modeling, using appropriate tools strategically, and recognizing and using algebraic structures. In practice, this means more story/situation problems than the old SAT/PSAT had. Pre-algebra, algebra, geometry, basic statistics, and trigonometry are all tested on the SAT. As the College Board notes,the PSAT 10 generally contains fewer advanced algebra, geometry, and trig questions.That said, you can still expect a pretty thorough test of pre-algebra, basic algebra, and basic statistics. Below are two official PSAT Math questions. The first is from the No Calculator subsection, and the second is from the Calculator subsection: Should You Take the PSAT 10 or the PSAT NMSQT? Now that you understand what the similarities and differences are between the PSAT 10 and PSAT NMSQT, which test should you take? Below, we give you a few key tips to help you decide whether to take the PSAT 10 or the PSAT NMSQT: As a junior, you should definitely take the PSAT/NMSQT.Doing this will give you a shot to qualify for the National Merit competition should you score high enough for it; you'll also get the most rigorous practice for the SAT. As a sophomore, you can take either test, depending on your goals.However, if you have your heart set on getting a National Merit Scholarship, then it's best to take the PSAT/NMSQT as a sophomore (possibly in addition to the PSAT 10 if you want even more practice). Though you can’t qualify for National Merit as a 10th grader, youcan get in some helpful practice and learn exactly how difficult the exam is. You’ll also start more rigorous SAT practice early. If you’re a freshman or younger, consider taking the PSAT 8/9- yet another version of the PSAT specifically designed for older middle school students in (you guessed it!) the eighth and ninth grades. The PSAT 8/9 will introduce you to SAT-type questions without overwhelming you with difficult content. What’s Next? Get a complete guide to the SATandthe PSATso you can understand how to prep for these two important tests and what you'll need to know to do well on them. Not sure exactly when you should aim to take the SAT? Get an answer to that question here. What exactly is National Merit? Learn more about the program here and then get tips onhow to win the scholarship. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Discuss at least two of the U.S. Supreme Court rulings in regards to Essay

Discuss at least two of the U.S. Supreme Court rulings in regards to the death penalty and how it has impacted capital punishment in the United States - Essay Example In fact, it was against the 8th Amendment of the United States Constitution. In the case of Kennedy v. Louisiana, 554 U.S. 407 (2008), involving the rape of a 12 year old girl by his stepfather, the ruling was against the death penalty. It was argued that one should not be sentenced to death since the victim did not die. They laid out debate that it was unfair to kill such a criminal since it was not a capital offense compared to other cases involving outright murder. There is a trend showing that with the passing of time, capital punishments had to be revised so as to allow justice and consistency in the rulings of court. No evidence has shown that the death penalty had an effect on the rate of crime in any state. This was because, if anything, it contributed to murder at all levels and the devaluation of human

Introduction to decision making Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to decision making - Assignment Example Although whether he elects to sell or hold on to the company’s most expensive assets in the anticipation that better circumstances can prevail. The task to make the decisions that will help in ameliorating the status of Qantas would be a difficult one with multiple challenges (Rao, 2010). Qantas has continually experienced challenges from high costs of jet fuel just like many other Local Airlines. Quite recently, the Flying Kangaroo has also faced local challenges where it is forced to cope with a commercial slowdown and increasing rivalry with the Virgin Australia Holdings. In order to continually grow profits, someone ought to introduce stern principles and make harsh decisions in order to compete in the airline business (Rao, 2010).The decision to either sell or retain the Airline’s most priced assets would be a difficult decision to make for any expert. However decision to undertake either of the two procedures is a risky trail to take. The decision of Alan Joyce was a strategic, tactical as well as an operational one. The principal objective of the decision is to sustain the company in the local airline competition and counter the Virgin Australia for its customers; for this reason, it can be said that the move is strategic. The plan is tactical because t here would counter the other Local Airlines by stealing customers from them. Qantas needed to deal with its declining market share and losses in its transnational operations through improving its competitiveness. With regards to the domestic scene, Joyce had to address the challenges from the Virgin Australia. The competitor Virgin Australia set up a program share accord with other global giants such as Delta Airlines and Singapore. Joyce took a draconian counteractive step by instituting central structural changes to the company’s operations. The action made losses of up to $200 million. Joyce made another decision to initiate new airlines,

Leadership issues and solutions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership issues and solutions - Essay Example Some of the complaints put forth include huge disparities between remuneration between those in top management and those in lower levels of operations. The working hours and increased work load per employee is also a challenge. The management needs to offer leadership by first listening and genuinely responding to these complaints. There is a communication gap that needs bridging where employees’ representatives should sit and negotiate with the management. Harmonizing remuneration needs to be considered and a formula devised on how to shorten the disparity. The workload will not be an issue if the management takes a few employees for further training so as to better manage the increased responsibilities. Organizations have to keep their employees motivated so as to ensure increased productivity states Camilius (2011). Camilius further states that losing employees is quite costly especially in replacing them. Every employee likes to feel valued and part of the larger organizational workforce. Even if some issues like increasing remuneration are sensitive and may not happen immediately, it is critical to communicate the intensions or reasons of failure thereof to the relevant employee representatives. These actions will go a long way in holding to the workforce as well as maintaining high motivation

Gender-Based Differences in Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Research Paper

Gender-Based Differences in Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) - Research Paper Example As reported by the American Heart Association (2006), almost 70% of the total population of the United States has cardiovascular disease. As shown in the charts above (Health Care Online, 2011), males are more prone to develop CVD than women at the age below 60. Men die 10 years younger than women from heart attacks (Kannel et al., 1976). However, this biological advantage of women over men shrinks as they age. II. Biological Theories The primary biological advantage of women over men in terms of CVD risk is the female sex hormone, estrogen. Estrogen protects women from cardiovascular disease. Most of the protective functions of estrogen originate from its role in controlling cholesterol levels. This hormone works in the liver to eliminate unnecessary cholesterol in the body (Saleh & Connell, 2007). More particularly, estrogen boosts the level of good cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and minimizes the buildup of bad cholesterol or low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Bad chol esterol buildup blocks blood vessels which then can disrupt blood flow to the heart. In contrast, good cholesterol reduces these blockages by minimizing the level of bad cholesterol (Vitale, Miceli, & Rosano, 2007). Estrogen strengthens the prostacyclin receptor. The prostacyclin receptor, which soothes the production of vascular smooth muscle cells and minimizes pulmonary vascular disorders, is a primary goal for estrogen being controlled by the estrogen receptor proteins— ERa and ERb (Saleh & Connell, 2007). Prostacyclin receptor can hinder the tightening of vessel walls, blood clotting, and clustering of platelets (Sugden, 2001). Thus the protein can help protect the body from heart disease. Estrogen also prevents the development of dangerous blockages by working on white blood cells. These white blood cells can cause blockages by accumulating in the interiors of blood vessels (Sugden, 2001). Women in their childbearing years have higher amount of the protein annexin-A1 in their white blood cells compared to men. Annexin-A1 stops white blood cells from aggregating in the blood vessel wall which can cause vascular disorder (Sugden, 2001). Therefore, Pre-menopausal women are less prone to CVD than post-menopausal ones. Epidemiological studies reported lower CVD risk factors among estrogen-enriched women. These findings resulted in the assumption that estrogen-enhancing therapy, such as the use of birth control pills and hormone replacement therapy (HRT), for a specified period of time before the onset of the menopause is feasible. It is assumed that estrogens assume a major physiological function when the heart exhibits reperfusion disorder, which is an injury to the renal blood vessels (Saleh & Connell, 2007). Normally, estrogen activity is interceded by particular estrogen receptors (ERs). ERs are part of the primary group of steroid hormone receptor, which can function as endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which serves a vital function in sus taining vascular homeostasis by combining and discharging a number of soothing elements, like prostacyclin (Saleh & Connell, 2007), with possible repercussions for coronary heart function. Nevertheless, the use of birth control pills has been linked to the raised amount of C-reactive protein related to CVD. This C-reactive protein (CRP) is generated in the body as a reaction to inflammation (Mendelsohn, 2002). Recurrently high CRP levels have been connected

Business Econimics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Econimics - Research Paper Example The elasticity of demand might affected too: Since trust is hard to earn and easy to lose, it is likely that once a company has violated ethical standards, consumers will be afraid of getting burnt again and will avoid the company at the first sign of trouble, making their offerings more elastic. Costs might raise: Contractors, suppliers and distributors might ask for a higher price for their service and goods, either because they feel that the company's bargaining position has declined, as insurance against potential malfeasance, or as compensation for the inevitable PR hit. Ethical issues are more likely to occur in deregulated markets (Palast, 2002; Palast, 2004). This is for a few reasons. First: The kind of behavior that occurs in a deregulated market tends to already be less constrained by conventional ethics, meaning that companies that thrive in that environment are already likely to have unorthodox and perhaps unscrupulous cultures and practices. Second: Regulation, both by NGOs and government, tends to make companies more sensitive to the impacts of what they are doing; it might be seen by someone. One of the major ways that Enron managed to get away with so much was the inaction of shareholders and the failure of accounting firms, auditors and regulators (Palast, 2002; Berenbeim, 2002). Consider a rise in demand for computer chips and potato chips. Potato chips are pure luxury items: They are highly elastic, because people can afford to go without potato chips. Computers and the chips that make them up, in contrast, are essential items for business, homes, political agencies and NGOs. The economy runs on telecommunication technology, credit card processing, etc. that is all done through computerized systems. A reduction in demand can't hurt computer makers much, despite the relatively high cost of producing computer chips to potato chips, because they are so essential. In the short run, a potato chip maker might harvest more potatoes, run lines faste r, or pack factories more tightly to increase production. A computer chip maker might do the same thing, but while the occasional green or stale potato chip is not a threat to the potato chip makers' reputation, a failing computer chip costs headaches in bad reviews, tech support headaches and so on. Buying new factories for potato chips is likely to be easy: Buying and properly fitting new factories and training new personnel for computer chips is much harder. In the long run, of course, the potato chip company has to bear in mind that a new health fad, a change in the taste buds and palates of customers, a marketing campaign, or something else might harm the demand for their product. They can't afford to get too much excess. Further, potato chips must be strictly identified according to USDA standards, meaning rebranding is more difficult than it might seem and companies are less flexible than an initial review would suggest (2009). However, computer chip makers know that, in the long run, their product cannot help but grow, as the Third World catches up and computerizes more and more and as more and more products need computer chips. Thus, it's clear that a product that is elastic might have some more flexibility in dealing with spikes, but tends to have difficulty maintaining those spikes and therefore taking advantage of them, whereas a less elastic product might take longer to get

Gender-Based Differences in Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) Research Paper

Gender-Based Differences in Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) - Research Paper Example As reported by the American Heart Association (2006), almost 70% of the total population of the United States has cardiovascular disease. As shown in the charts above (Health Care Online, 2011), males are more prone to develop CVD than women at the age below 60. Men die 10 years younger than women from heart attacks (Kannel et al., 1976). However, this biological advantage of women over men shrinks as they age. II. Biological Theories The primary biological advantage of women over men in terms of CVD risk is the female sex hormone, estrogen. Estrogen protects women from cardiovascular disease. Most of the protective functions of estrogen originate from its role in controlling cholesterol levels. This hormone works in the liver to eliminate unnecessary cholesterol in the body (Saleh & Connell, 2007). More particularly, estrogen boosts the level of good cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and minimizes the buildup of bad cholesterol or low-density lipoprotein (LDL). Bad chol esterol buildup blocks blood vessels which then can disrupt blood flow to the heart. In contrast, good cholesterol reduces these blockages by minimizing the level of bad cholesterol (Vitale, Miceli, & Rosano, 2007). Estrogen strengthens the prostacyclin receptor. The prostacyclin receptor, which soothes the production of vascular smooth muscle cells and minimizes pulmonary vascular disorders, is a primary goal for estrogen being controlled by the estrogen receptor proteins— ERa and ERb (Saleh & Connell, 2007). Prostacyclin receptor can hinder the tightening of vessel walls, blood clotting, and clustering of platelets (Sugden, 2001). Thus the protein can help protect the body from heart disease. Estrogen also prevents the development of dangerous blockages by working on white blood cells. These white blood cells can cause blockages by accumulating in the interiors of blood vessels (Sugden, 2001). Women in their childbearing years have higher amount of the protein annexin-A1 in their white blood cells compared to men. Annexin-A1 stops white blood cells from aggregating in the blood vessel wall which can cause vascular disorder (Sugden, 2001). Therefore, Pre-menopausal women are less prone to CVD than post-menopausal ones. Epidemiological studies reported lower CVD risk factors among estrogen-enriched women. These findings resulted in the assumption that estrogen-enhancing therapy, such as the use of birth control pills and hormone replacement therapy (HRT), for a specified period of time before the onset of the menopause is feasible. It is assumed that estrogens assume a major physiological function when the heart exhibits reperfusion disorder, which is an injury to the renal blood vessels (Saleh & Connell, 2007). Normally, estrogen activity is interceded by particular estrogen receptors (ERs). ERs are part of the primary group of steroid hormone receptor, which can function as endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), which serves a vital function in sus taining vascular homeostasis by combining and discharging a number of soothing elements, like prostacyclin (Saleh & Connell, 2007), with possible repercussions for coronary heart function. Nevertheless, the use of birth control pills has been linked to the raised amount of C-reactive protein related to CVD. This C-reactive protein (CRP) is generated in the body as a reaction to inflammation (Mendelsohn, 2002). Recurrently high CRP levels have been connected

Monitoring ,Final review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Monitoring ,Final review - Essay Example This would also ensure that the deliverables are present in the right condition to ensure completion of the project and achievement of the set objectives. This will be done upon completion of the project, this ensures the construction is per the initial plan and any deviations are raised and necessary measures addressed to ensure full satisfaction of the stakeholders. Construction of stadium is should be effectively describes what the value is to the football sponsoring organisations from the results gained after the construction is complete. Â  Managing construction will involve value management of benefits, costs, timescales, and risks. Is the construction plan clearly defining the results expected to be gained after the stadium is constructed as per the construction plan, resources and time it will take for construction, the plan will proved agreed times for monitoring and placation of necessary inputs. Stage plans will be established to provide details on how and when the objectives stipulated by the stakeholders are being met by showing the construction plans and drawing, activities and resources required for construction. Â  The Stage Plan will provide a baseline against which stage progress will be measured and is used as the basis of management control throughout the stage in the proceeding construction stage. In monitoring the construction process a work package will be used to Sets out all information needed to deliver one or more specialist products. Â  The necessary information is collated by the Project Manager and used to formally pass responsibility for work or delivery to a team leader or member In the event of a change in the decision or strategy of construction will be identified in the stage. Stake holder may change or improve an idea and thus will be implemented at the change control strategy stage. Adequate information shall be provided by the Project Board to sponsor and stakeholders by providing a summary of each stage status at

Role Of Education in Sustainable Development Essay Example for Free

Role Of Education in Sustainable Development Essay Sustainable development is that development which will meet the present needs of the community without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Environmental education involves among other things the provision of information, recognizing values, clarifying concepts etc in order to develop skills and attitudes that enable the community to understand and appreciate the relationship between their cultures and their physical surroundings. At international fora, attempts have been made to promote environmental education. In the year 1975 in Belgrade, the program for international environmental education was started followed by the conference in Tsibilisi in 1977, Nevada 1979, Moscow 1987, †¦. . Since then the council of European countries has twice called on member countries to advance on environmental education in all sectors of education. There is required a dominant policy to ensure that the findings of research on environmental science are properly applied to ensure that the world is safe for further development with no further destruction of the natural resources. It is therefore necessary to involve the players in political, economic and cultural sectors in designing environmental programs. By doing this, we will notice that all these players have turned environmentalists and we can expect a conflict of interest of style in the approach of environmental matters. This is because sustainable development is a contested territory with its ownership disputed by forces with very diverse interests. Its thus difficult to foresee any slackening of the effort on those who will continue to impose development to suit their ends invoking â€Å"modernity, national integration, economic growth and other slogans† (Adams 1990, p199). With challenges as these, education is a must in order to bring these interests groups together and come up with sound policy on sustainable  development, infact one that is conscious of future needs. OBSTACLES TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT There are various obstacles to sustainable development which include:- 1. Lack of awareness on issues involved, 2. Political unacceptability of obvious steps forward, 3. Opposition by groups with vested interests, 4. Inadequacy of institutional mechanism for integrating environment and development. SOLUTIONS To overcome these obstacles, there is a feeling among many groups that there is a need to replace the ideas and values that underlie the complex and visible obstacles with a new approach and reshaping of ideas and values. To do this we need not just a modification, but a total revolution of our thinking. This can well be achieved through a well-designed education approach. ROLE OF EDUCATION Education plays a major role in enhancing people’s awareness about bio-diversity conservation as well as sustainable development. It leads to actualization of conservation knowledge and skills which in turn help in broadening people’s knowledge about conservation, thus making them functional members of the society. Education will enlighten stakeholders on various issues relating to sustainable development and bio-diversity conservation. Also education will sensitize them to participate fully in campaigns against any act or development that threaten future sustainability. Consequently, education empowers stakeholders to take increasing charge of their own developments as key ingredients combined with a clear knowledge of environmental constraints and of requirements to meet basic needs. This enables people to understand their need for and importance of biodiversity for now and in the future. It is this education which will enable us realise  that sustainable development confronts not just society, but each of us at the heart of his or her purpose. It invites us to give practical support to the values of social equity, human worth and ecological health. Education questions our readiness to involve ourselves in the struggle for change, it challenges our willingness to contribute in greater measure to the activities of NGO’s and dedicated individuals who campaign on our behalf. Moreover, education asks us to accept that the small beginnings from which so many successful campaigns have started resides within ourselves. As Laszlo (1989) puts it, â€Å"we contemplate changing almost anything on this earth except ourselves,† and this is due to the inner constraints in our visions and values that can only be removed through education. This is because education will explain the need for and importance of attitude and behaviour change in our pursuit for development, as a result we will realise that we owe the future generations what we have today. It is education that will enable us reach a conclusion as Max-reef (1991,P113) explains: -â€Å"I have reached the conclusion that I lack the power to change the world or any significant part of it, I only have the power to change myself. And the fascinating thing is that if I decide to change myself, there is no police force in the world that can prevent me doing so. It is my decision and if I want to do it, I can do it. Now the point is that if I change myself, something may happen as a consequence that may lead to a change in the world†. As such awareness becomes more general, sustainable development will be regarded seriously by the people who really count not just elites but people generally. Education whether formal or informal has been proved to be a powerful tool in promoting changes in the attitudes and perceptions of people about a resource. A series of conferences under the auspices of UNDP have been held to address issues pertaining to the link between sound natural resource management and sustainable development, environmental conservation and improved human welfare. Education for sustainable development will not only create awareness of the  global crisis but must place it at the heart of the curriculum. It must be â€Å"ecological† rather than â€Å"environmental† encouraging broad holistic thinking, teaching the need for structural change and promoting the correct application of reductionist thinking to specific technical problems. It will embrace all the means of the change discussed in this paper and alert stakeholders to the feasibility of alternative practices. Further, education will not only inform stakeholders, but also allow them to participate in decision making process about biodiversity conservation and thus promoting change. Through education, stakeholders will not only become acquinted with one another’s vision about healthy ecosystems but also stimulates them to formulate their own visions relating to biodiversity. It will not only teach them about holism but will require them to think holistically. Holistic thinking is a particularly important means of change for sustainable development because it attempts to figure out the consequences. Holistic approach tries to anticipate the problem â€Å"simple† solutions, create and to identify more satisfactory structural solutions. Holistic thinking led one farmer in Kenya, sickened at having to shoot the elephants ruining his crops, to adopt an alternative form of land use, accommodating not only his own interest but also those of elephants, of tourists who wanted to see elephants and of local people who could supplement their subsistence economy with income from tourism. Education will also help us to see the need of putting people first in all our endeavours in sustainable development and biodiversity conservation. Putting people first means quite simply valuing people for themselves, for what they are rather than for what they can do, or how they can perform in the service of some interest whose ends may be quite radically opposed to the meeting of human need. Putting people first also means empowerment- a process by which those who are or feel excluded from decision making are enabled to participate in it. It involves the transfer of power from those in authority to smaller groups. In some countries this has to begin with establishing or re-establishing political rights and other basic freedoms. (A recent example is the return to free elections in Malawi and Kenya). Only  then can a start be made to provide education and training to raise awareness and allow stakeholders to play an effective role in political process. Empowerment also refers to what Paul Freire, the Brazilian educationist calls â€Å"Conscientization† or education for consciousness, by which communities and individuals become aware of the reasons for their poverty and oppression and begin to discuss what they themselves can do about it without enabling action by the authorities. Ecological education will not only teach about empowerment but will enable stakeholders to fulfil their aspiration by helping them to develop their full range of abilities. By paying equal attention to emotional and intellectual development, education will teach the basic life skills people need to establish identities and grow as individuals. By encouraging creativity, commitment and initiative, it will equip stakeholders to take responsibility for themselves and their future, and to avoid dependency on biodiversity without ensuring its sustainability through sound management practices. It will also focus on relationships and teach what Harrison (1990,p203) calls the â€Å"work of human communication of caring and nurturance, of tending the personal bonds of the community†. It is envisaged that well organised education will also enhance our ability to relate with each other, not just on the level of day to day communication skill, but more importantly by acknowledging others identities and rights to a resource. This education will initiate a process of lifelong growth in awareness and aspiration. An individuals readiness to participate in that process, at however lowly or rudimentary a level, will be more important than acquiring impressive qualifications, for as Paul Freire (1972) points out, we are all â€Å"unfinished† human beings with a commitment to improve â€Å"unfinished† reality. Without the opportunity to develop their potential, individuals can not develop fully in discussions and initiatives on which progress to more sustainable development depends. Therefore, properly resourced and directed education will ensure that all stakeholders become the beneficiaries of the care, concern and skills of others. CONCLUSION In a world where the challenge of sustainable development is an imperative, rather than an option, we can not afford to debar people from participating by making them feel failures, whether academic failures as a result of the rigid application of elitist standards, or social or personal failures as a result of inadequate evolutions of both their needs and their potential. Therefore, I envisage that properly resourced and directed education aimed at encouraging the development of sensitivity, awareness, critical thinking, problem solving and active participation in biodiversity conservation campaigns, will enable stakeholders not only to become aware of the issues and be able to act on that awareness, but will be equipped with the skills required to contribute effectively to the debate. They will learn to plan, organise, communicate with others, develop strategies and create alliances with an aim of promoting sustainable development and ensuring biodiversity conservation.

The System Level And The Programmer Level Information Technology Essay

The System Level And The Programmer Level Information Technology Essay Probably not, since any protection scheme devised by a human can also be broken and the more complex the scheme is, the more difficult it is to be confident of its correct implementation. As compared to dedicated machines, time-shared machines are far less secure, and are very easy to overload the buffers. They are also much slower to catch a virus. But in dedicated machine, all resources are available to the process being run. Q2) Under what circumstances would a user be better off using a time sharing system rather than a PC or single user workstation? Ans . When there are few other users, the task is large, and the hardware is fast, time-sharing makes sense. The full power of the system can be brought to bear on the users problem. The problem can be solved faster than on a personal computer. Another case occurs when lots of other users need resources at the same time. A personal computer is best when the job is small enough to be executed reasonably on it and when performance is sufficient to execute the program to the users satisfaction. Q3) In the designing of the operating system there are two approaches modular kernel and layered approach? How are they different? Ans. There are various differences between moduler kernel and layered approach:- A modular kernel differs from a layered approach in that there is less overhead in making a call to a lower level part of the kernel. The call doesnt have to jump through numerous layers before work gets done and parts are aware of any other parts of the kernel and not just what is below them. Modular kernel is more secure as compared to layered approach, as more operations are done in user mode than in kernel mode. Debugging and modification of data is much easier in layered approach because changes affect only limited sections of the system rather than touching all sections of the system. In modular kernel approach, kernel design and its functionality are more simple as compared to layered approach. Part B Q4) There is guest operating system and a host operating system like VMware? List all the factors in choosing the host operating system? Ans. A host operating system is the operating system that is in direct communication with the hardware. It has direct hardware access to kernel mode and all of the devices on the physical machine. The guest operating system runs on top of a virtualization layer and all of the physical devices are virtualized. A host operating system should be as modular and thin as possible to allow the virtualization of the hardware to be as close to the physical hardware as possible, and so that dependencies that exist in the host operating dont restrict operation in the guest operating system. Q5) The kernel is responsible for a action with the processes. Search through the action of kernel and describe what is the action? Ans. The various actions of the kernel are as follows: The main task of a kernel is to allow the execution of applications and support them with features such as hardware abstractions. To run an application, a kernel typically sets up an  address space  for the application, loads the file containing the applications code into memory, sets up a  stack  for the program and branches to a given location inside the program, thus starting its execution. The kernel uses  scheduling algorithms  to determine which process is running next and how much time it will be given. The algorithm chosen may allow for some processes to have higher priority than others. To perform useful functions, processes need access to the  peripherals  connected to the computer, which are controlled by the kernel through  device drivers. If sometimes the interrupt has been occurred during execution of any process then it saves the state(address) of current process, and after that when interrupt has been removed then it restores the state(address) of previous process. Q6) Considering both the system level and the programmer level. Consider the advantage and disadvantage of the following structure. Synchronous and asynchronous communication. Automatic and explicit buffering. Send by copy and send by reference Fixed-sized and variable-sized message. Ans: Synchronous and asynchronous communication- synchronous communication: Advantage:   you can get an immediate response; instant feedback fosters communication; there seems to be a more emotional bonding effect between people when there is a possiblity to communicate in real time (synchronously), spontaneity. Disadvantage: There is less time to think about what you want to say or your response to another; time may be a limiting factor, e.g time zones; synchronous communication over the computer may be difficult because of the speed of data transaction with slower connections; you need extra equipment (speakers, microphone, webcamera). asynchronous communication: Advantage: you have time to think about what you want to say; time is not a constraint. You can receive the message whenever you have time and you can analyze the content of the message more carefully so the answer you give can be even more meaningful because it has gone through a process of elaboration. Disadvantage: no immediate response, especially where time is significant; you may not know if the other person has received your message; the message loses human contact . Automatic and explicit buffering Automatic buffering : Advantage: Automatic buffering provides a queue with inde ¬Ã‚ nite length ; thus ensuring the sender will never have to block while waiting to copy a message. Disadvantage: There are no specifications how automatic buffering will be provided; one scheme may reserve sufficiently large memory where much of the memory is wasted. Explicit buffering: Advantage: Explicit buffering speci ¬Ã‚ es how large the bufferis. Disadvantage: In this situation, the sender may be blocked while waiting for available space in the queue. However, it is less likely memory will be wasted with explicit buffering. Send by copy and send by reference Send by copy: Advantage: send by copy is better for synchronization issues. Disadvantage: Send by copy does not allow the receiver to alter the state of parameter. send by reference: Advantage: A bene ¬Ã‚ t of send by reference is that it allows the programmer to write a distributed version of a centralized application Javas RMI provides both, however passing a parameter by reference requires declaring the parameter as a remote object as well. Send by reference also allow the receiver to alter the state of parameter. Disadvantage: send by reference can compromise the security of an organisation because sensitive information can be easily distributed accidently or deliberately. Fixed-sized and variable-sized messages Fixed-sized messages: Advantage: The implications of this are mostly related to buffering issues; with  ¬Ã‚ xed-size messages, a buffer with a speci ¬Ã‚ c size can hold a known number of messages. Disadvantage: with  ¬Ã‚ xed-sized messages the messages are copied from the address space of the sender to the address space of the receiving process. Variable-sized messages: Advantage: variable-sized messages (i.e. Larger messages) use shared memory to pass the message. Disadvantage: The number of variable-sized messages that can be held by such a buffer is unknown.